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ABSTRACT High-velocity clouds (HVCs) may fuel future star formation in the Milky Way, but they must first survive their passage through the hot halo. While recent work has improved our understanding of the survival criterion for cloud–wind interactions, few observational comparisons exist that test this criterion. We therefore present an initial comparison of simulations with the Smith Cloud (SC; $d=$ 12.4 kpc, $$l, b = 40^{\circ }, -13^{\circ }$$) as mapped with the GALFA-HI (Galactic Arecibo L-Band Feed Array HI) survey. We use the SC’s observed properties to motivate simulations of comparable clouds in wind tunnel simulations with enzo-e, a magnetohydrodynamic code. For both observations and simulations, we generate moment maps, characterize turbulence through a projected first-order velocity structure function (VSF), and do the same for H i column density with a normalized autocovariance function. We explore how initial cloud conditions (such as radius, metallicity, thermal pressure, viewing angle, and distance) affect these statistics, demonstrating that the small-scale VSF is sensitive to cloud turbulence, while large scales depend on cloud bulk velocity and viewing angle. We find that some simulations reproduce key observational features (particularly the correlation between column density and velocity dispersion) but none match all observational probes at the same time (the large scales of the column density autocovariance is particularly challenging). We find that the simulated cloud (cloud C) showing growth via a turbulent radiative mixing layer (TRML) is the best match, implying the importance of TRML-mediated cooling for Milky Way HVCs. We conclude by suggesting improvements for simulations to better match observed HVCs. 

ABSTRACT We present an investigation of clustered stellar feedback in the form of superbubbles identified within 11 galaxies from the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, at both cosmic noon (1 < z < 3) and in the local universe. We study the spatially resolved multiphase outflows that these supernovae drive, comparing our findings with recent theory and observations. These simulations consist of five Large Magellanic Cloud–mass galaxies and six Milky Way-mass progenitors (with a minimum baryonic particle mass of $$m_{\rm b.min} = 7100\,{\rm M}_{\odot }$$). For all galaxies, we calculate the local and galaxy-averaged mass and energy-loading factors from the identified outflows. We also characterize the multiphase morphology and properties of the identified superbubbles, including the ‘shell’ of cool ($$T\lt 10^5$$ K) gas and break out of energetic hot ($$T\gt 10^5$$ K) gas when the shell bursts. We find that these simulations, regardless of redshift, have mass-loading factors and momentum fluxes in the cool gas that largely agree with recent observations. Lastly, we also investigate how methodological choices in measuring outflows can affect loading factors for galactic winds.